Andean glacier retreat (Courtesy Photo)

About half of the world’s freshwater resources come from precipitation (rain and snow) in mountainous regions. Whereas the impacts of climate change on the stability of mountain glaciers and year-to-year reliability of snowpacks have received much attention, understanding how climate change will impact monsoon rainfall that is actually the dominant freshwater source on mountain slopes and adjacent lowlands in the tropics and subtropics remains a challenge.

With worldwide distribution and strong environmental and climatic gradients, mountains are elevated observatories where the impacts of climate variability and change can be first detected. Yet, mountainous regions remain among the least observed regions in the planet.

In the Fall of 2011, a science-grade network of 10m towers was placed at high elevations (1,400 to 4,000 m) to measure above-canopy precipitation on the envelope orography of the Central Andes, more precisely in the Kospiñata river valley in the vicinity of Parque Nacional del Manu a collaborative project funded by the Nacional Science Foundation including Duke University, Wake Forest University, and the University of Cusco in Peru. These stations are to be the core of an observing system to understand cloud forest and wet puna hydrometeorology, and in particular climate controls of fog-cloud-rainfall interactions. It is expected that such observations will also provide valuable ground validation data to improve the performance of satellite-based rainfall estimation algorithms (e.g. NASA’s upcoming Global Precipitation Measurement mission) in the region and elsewhere. Ultimately, satellite-based observing systems are the realistic path toward achieving high density continuous observations of mountain precipitation at global and regional scales.

The diurnal cycle of rainfall (e.g. where it rains, how much it rains, how fast it rains, how long it rains, and at what time of day) varies greatly from one mountain region to another, and in the same region it can vary greatly with elevation and landform. For example, a comparison among observations on the envelope orography of the central Andes and the central Himalayas indicate that whereas the wet season (monsoon) rainfall totals are about the same, rainfall amounts peak in the early afternoon whereas rainfall intensity peaks in the evening at low and high elevations in the Central Andes, but rainfall amounts and intensity peak during in the evening and very early morning in the southern facing slopes of the central Himalayas at all elevations below the treeline. Interestingly, despite their location in the cloud forest, recent observations from the Peru show that rainfall intensities exceeding 100 mm/hr are not uncommon at roughly 2,700 m elevations, where rates as high as 200 mm/hr were measured a high elevation valley location. These high rainfall rates are associated with landslide activity and debris flows that can cause much landscape damage and loss of life.

Rainfall intensity as a discriminant of rainfall regime is critical for assessing the sustainability of freshwater resources in mountainous regions. Light rainfall is dominant at high elevations in cloud forests and wet grasslands in the Andes. Although light rainfall is expected to decrease due to changes in fog and low level cloud regimes, lower relative humidity and higher low level temperatures in the troposphere, morning light rainfall is likely to be more sustainable than afternoon light rainfall depending on how changes in temperature are reflected in the diurnal cycles of temperature in a warmer climate. Changes in fog and rainfall intensity affect canopy harvesting of fog and interception of rainfall on the one hand, and infiltration and soil moisture. Lower surface soil moisture leads to increased soil and boundary layer temperatures, in a positive feedback loop, that would tend to further increase surface layer temperatures and the dryness of upper soil layers, thus affecting understory and forest floor vegetation at first, and consequently albedo and surface temperature, depleting soil moisture from the root zones, ultimately altering runoff production mechanisms and groundwater recharge, and streamflow regimes. On the other hand, if heavy rainfalls were to increase in frequency or in intensity with climate change, this would have major implications for hillslope stability and overall ecosystem resilience besides the human social and economic toll on mountain populations. Vegetation disturbances caused by landslides for example can facilitate the progression of invasive species, and threaten the biodiversity of mountain ecosystems.

This blog post was written by Ana P. Barros of Duke University and the Energy and Climate Partnership of the Americas.

Patterns of human development – physical, social, and economic – affect sustainability at the local and the global level. City and regional planning helps define how, where, and when human settlement occurs. The location of urban development and the choices for reusing and adapting cities make a huge difference in resource consumption. Planners can play a crucial role in improving the sustainability of communities and the resources that support them.

Sustainability, seen broadly, should address three main goals, commonly referred to as the “three Es”: Environment, Equity, and Economy. The most sustainable policies and implementation practices will be the ones that simultaneously advance all three goals. For me sustainability is a value-based effort to achieve what is right for society, or in any given community. My organization, The American Planning Association (APA) just held its 104th annual conference in Los Angeles and to kick it off, we cosponsored a Youth Forum on Sustainable Cities in cooperation with our Chinese partners. It is critical that we reach out to young people from all disciplines and all countries to engage them in the process of shaping the future. Too many times, their voices are not at the table when decisions are made yet their generation will be most affected.

ECPA Fellow Jeff Soule getting local perspectives in Rio De Janeiro with meetings in the neighborhoods. (Courtesy Photo)

Widespread urbanization in both the U.S. and around the world is one of the most significant demographic trends seen today. Fortunately, it is also one of the most sustainable trends. Populations in urbanizing areas experience lower birth rates, higher educational attainments, and smaller carbon footprints. In other words, urbanization is at the core of sustainability. Yet for the benefits of urbanization to be realized, there are things we need to do better.

1 Improve citizen involvement. We must engage each other in the discussion of the choices we have based on knowledge and information sharing. Planners are especially trained to help citizens become more informed and engaged in shaping a more sustainable future. In many places, citizens do not have a direct voice in development decisions and resource allocation and participatory governance a new concept that needs our support.

2 Plan according to Nature. Look at the regional picture and protect sensitive areas from urbanization. Much of today’s urbanization is occurring in areas of high risk for natural disasters: coastal and delta regions, earthquake and tsunami prone areas and places susceptible to sea level rise. Planning for hazard mitigation and avoidance is a critical effort that is often overlooked. We must not continue to place people in harm’s way through lack of planning.

3 Respect and learn from traditional patterns and techniques. Today the world is more interconnected than ever and we can recognize and value cultural differences and approaches to creating places. In many cases, historical building styles and materials embody the essence of low energy and sustainability. Equating high technology with modernity is a concept that needs to be questioned as we examine and respect the traditional settlements, designs and cultures that can inform our options.

This guest blog was written by Jeff Soule of the Energy and Climate Partnership of the Americas (ECPA).

Bluefin Tuna in tuna ranching company's (Ecolo Fish) cages - Mediterranean Sea, Spain

The idea of sustainable development can be a complicated one: growing while reducing one’s impact on the environment. There are social components tied to logistical concerns, and there is always the issue of resources: from water to land to funding. To help navigate things, we can start with the idea of sustainability.

The U.S. Environment Protection Agency defines sustainability this way:

Sustainability is based on a simple principle: Everything that we need for our survival and well-being depends, either directly or indirectly, on our natural environment.  Sustainability creates and maintains the conditions under which humans and nature can exist in productive harmony, that permit fulfilling the social, economic and other requirements of present and future generations. Sustainability is important to making sure that we have and will continue to have, the water, materials, and resources to protect human health and our environment.

So how does that impact you, today? Are there steps that you can take in order to live more sustainably? Many of you may already be doing things that are sustainable: using LED light bulbs, recycling, reducing water waste (such as when washing dishes or brushing one’s teeth), turning off the lights when you leave the room to reduce energy use. These are all fantastic!

Have you considered plugging all your electronics into a power strip and turning off that power strip at night or when you are not home? This stops unnecessary energy waste. A great way to cut back on harmful chemicals and toxins getting into the water supply is to switch to natural, non-toxic cleaning supplies and soaps and shampoos. Do you often buy new clothes, shoes and accessories? Consider shopping at second hand stores, doing a clothing swap with friends, or buying clothing and shoes made from sustainably harvested materials.

Did you know that certain fish are sustainable, while others are being over fished and might disappear in as little as a few years? To find out if a certain fish is sustainably caught, enter in the name in this handy site.

There are many small steps you can take in order to make your life more sustainable. How do you live more sustainably?

Apartment complex in Phuket, Thailand that is part of the city's greening project.

According to the World Bank, 60% of all people are projected to live in cities by 2030.  As more people move into cities, those cities must absorb the impact: in terms of infrastructure, housing, roads, social services, food, and myriad others.

One idea that many governments, communities and cities are exploring is the idea of sustainability and sustainable growth. This includes revamping existing infrastructure and services to be more efficient and less resource intensive (and often better for the environment), while also planning for growth with a similar mindset. Cities exploring sustainable growth are often looking for ways to reduce environmental impact and waste of energy, water and food. Included in these plans are different environmental criteria, and can include air quality, recycling, transportation, agriculture and many others.

An incredible example of this is the 100% energy independent Danish island of Samsø.  Samsø is admittedly a small island, with only 4,000 inhabitants, and it is true that many cities have significantly larger populations that will require changes on a much larger (and more expensive) scale. But Samsø serves as a stunning example of what innovation and community can accomplish when the focus is on energy efficiency, energy independence, and sustainability. Learn more about the island from these short interviews with Søren Hermansen, one of the founders of the project.

Has your city or town taken any sustainability measures, such as instituting a recycling program or offering incentives for biking, taking public transportation, walking or carpooling instead of driving a car to work?

Samsø Infographic

Watch this very short video by Philippe Cousteau, an ocean conservationist and founder of EarthEcho International, an environmental organization just for youth, about how incredibly important he thinks young people are in building “the sustainable future we all deserve.” Philippe is the Chief Spokesperson for the Yeosu World Expo, which will take place from May 12-August 12 in South Korea and feature pavilions built by many different countries. The theme of the U.S. Pavilion is The Living Ocean and Coast).

One group of young people dedicating themselves to the issues of sustainable development all over the world is SustainUS, “a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization of young people advancing sustainable development and youth empowerment.” Though they are located in the United States, the Sustain US youth “agents” attend sustainable development and other environmental conferences all over the world. Their website has more information on their projects and how to get involved.  Don’t miss the most recent guest blog by a SustainUS Agent in Brazil about the role of youth in water negotiations.

Youth empowerment is not just the domain of organizations: governments have taken notice as well. The African Union declared in 2009 that the years of 2009-2019 would be the “decade of youth development” in Africa.  Read the Youth Charter here.  and check out the African Youth Forum 2011 website, which has the slogan “Prepare the Youth. Prepare Africa’s Future.” You can connect with other youth on their social media properties: Facebook  and Twitter (@AYF2011).  Even though the Forum was last year, there are active postings and discussions on these social media sites.

Do you agree that young people can make a difference now on issues of sustainability?

The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Division for Sustainable Development says that “The achievement of sustainable development requires the integration of its economic, environmental and social components at all levels. This is facilitated by continuous dialogue and action in global partnership, focusing on key sustainable development issues.”  These “key sustainable development issues” are outlined here.

As the world’s population continues to grow at a rapid pace, governments, communities and individuals are faced with the fact that we are going to need to support all of these people without destroying the earth from which we get all our resources. Finding that balance has been an important challenge for many, and throughout this month we will explore the challenges and innovative solutions associated with sustainable development.

What does “sustainable development” mean to you?

As youth, we pledged our commitments to solve the challenges that are threatening the livelihoods of millions of people around the world and made an emphasis on water access, water governance and the efficient use of water. We also concurred with the water-related concerns raised in international accords such as the Dublin Principles, which specifically call for the implementation of water efficiency strategies and universal water access.

Olimar reading the Water Declaration to the Parliament at the World Water Forum in Marseilles, France in March, 2012 (Photo credit: PMJE)

We have recognized the great challenge of North America when referring to its high use of water. The average person in the United States has a water footprint of 2842 m3 per year, the largest in the world. Furthermore, as buyers and consumers, they also affect the water balances by buying clothes made of cotton from places as far as Malaysia and India, utilizing water from countries that may have a scarce supply as a result.

When I attended the Forum in Marseilles, I had the opportunity to participate in discussions related to water efficiency. During these discussions, experts from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Global Water Footprint, and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) called for the implementation of measurements such as water footprints and water efficiency standards. Therefore, as part of our regional compromises for the North American region, we would seek to develop strategies to increase awareness about water footprints and the efficient use of water between young people and policy makers.

In other regions such as Central Africa, water access still represents a barrier to human development. Only 30 percent of Central Africans have access to clean water and even fewer to sanitation. Consequently, the youth representatives of the region have committed to work with different actors to build their capacity concerning access to water and the impact they can have in the decision-making process.

At the end of the Forum, the Youth Declaration for Water was recognized as one of the official outcomes of the event. Additionally, the Water Youth Parliament and the World Water Youth Movement were recognized as the main voices for youth and water.

Second step: World Water Day

After the Forum, the next stop for water experts was the World Water Day celebrated on March 22, 2012 with the purpose of calling attention to the existing relation between water and food. According to the United Nations, over 400 events were organized worldwide to celebrate the World Water Day.

Representatives of the World Water Youth Parliament

In Pakistan, youth representatives organized a fair to share information on water pollution. In Nicaragua, the group Jovenes Ambientalistas called attention to the impacts of water pollution in the rural and urban population. Additionally, in Ecuador, a march to call attention to the human right for water was organized.

Other youth representatives sought to use this day to go to their local media and communicate the accomplishments of the Forum and the Water Youth Parliament as a way to increase awareness in their respective countries.

Next steps: What can you do?

Even though the official month for water is over, the task of raising awareness about water issues is just beginning. We need more concrete policies and actions in both national and international levels.

As youth, I am interested in learning more about the importance of incorporating water use measurements within our policies. How can we introduce initiatives for the better use of water through our different economic sectors? How can we incorporate water into international and regional agreements? These are some of the questions that capture my attention. Hopefully, worldwide youth networks can help shed light into some of these issues.

You, in your country, can also help find solutions to these issues. What issue related to water interests you? What can you do to help find solutions? We all share the responsibility of easing the task to solve the severe water challenges that we face.

This post was written by Olimar Maisonet-Guzman is a 2011 Boren Fellow to Brazil and a member of the SustainUS Youth Delegation that will participate in the Rio+20 Earth Summit. Find out why she thinks the Amazon is the most important rainforest in the world and why youth are incredibly important to the environmental movement.

U.S. Ambassador to Thailand, Kristie Kenney, with an elephant at the National Zoo to celebrate Thailand's "National Elephant Day."

To celebrate Thailand’s National Elephant Day, U.S. Ambassador to Thailand, Kristie Kenney, and Thai Deputy Chief of Mission Nantana Sivakua visited the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. to get a tour of the “Elephant Trails” exhibit. It is here that we met Kandula, Shanthi, and Ambika, the zoo’s resident elephants. On the trip, it was great to hear Ambassador Kenney’s reflections during our tour. Her face lit up while she told stories of her past visits, with her emphasis on the “extraordinary opportunities for learning that are free.”

What struck me as most interesting about this trip to the zoo was learning that a lot of research about elephants shows the incredible similarity in their cognitive functioning to humans – that is to say the way we think, and react, is very much the same for a variety of emotions including joy, jealousy, grief, and even socialization! During the tour, Ambassador Kenney asked a zoo official if the elephants were bothered by all of the attention they received from visitors. His reply? Not at all- they actually look sad when there are not as many visitors!

Some Asian elephants are becoming endangered, largely due to poaching. Thankfully, there are organizations working to conserve the remaining wild population and breed more in captivity. The Smithsonian Institute is doing research on elephants and, after hearing about this research, the Ambassador emphasized the “importance of protecting animals and doing so before it is too late.” Other research conducted by the Smithsonian and their partners focuses on population control and led to the discovery of a disease that kills one-third of baby elephants. By making discoveries such as these, scientists can take positive steps towards protecting elephants and keeping their populations up. Without this research and current conservation efforts, Asian elephants could be gone in as little as 20 years.

Elephants in the wild are still at risk for poaching and those in conservancies are not necessarily self-sustaining because of sickness, injury, etc. Part of the National Zoo’s initiative is creating an “insurance population” of elephants, a process that takes about 6-7 years to create one whole replacement generation. Why does it take this long?

• An elephant’s pregnancy lasts 22 months, for which only one baby is born
• Additional pregnancies do not usually occur until after the first calf is weaned, about 4-5 years.

So why is this elephant research so important? Elephants’ place in the ecosystem is imperative and, as Ambassador Kenney pointed out, “These are not just animals that sit in a zoo, they are part of the greater infrastructure.” She added, “There is uniqueness in the Thai culture for the role and importance of the elephant.” Do you have elephants in your country? Can you imagine a world without them?

This post was written by Jen Dougherty of the Department of State’s Bureau of International Information Programs.  She attended the event to celebrate Thailand’s National Elephant Day at the National Zoo with the U.S. Ambassador to Thailand, Kristie Kenney.  Jen works on eJournal USA Facebook page and @AmericaGov Twitter.

Reef Check Vanuatu: Rural Awareness Program

Reef Check Vanuatu Project

The Malpoa College Reef Check Team advanced its work on a project called “Reef Check Vanuatu: Rural Awareness Program,” with a small environmental award of $13,000 from the Department of State’s Regional Environmental Office (REO) in Suva in November 2010. Reef Check Vanuatu employed college student volunteers in a coral reef preservation project on Tanna Island in Vanuatu.

Coral reefs, now threatened by overfishing, pollution, and sedimentation, are the locus for a great amount of marine biodiversity in the South Pacific. They are essential to the survival of the ecosystem and provide food and shelter for fish and other marine animals. Many Pacific Islanders depend on these fish and other reef dwellers to maintain a living and feed their families.

Reef Check Vanuatu Project participants

Reef Check Vanuatu focuses a large component of its activities on building community awareness of the economic and social benefits of reef preservation. The Reef Check team conducted interviews with local villagers and elders, held a workshop for adults from Louanatom Villages on coral reef biology and the need for marine preservation, and developed a reef-check toolkit, posters and printed materials to promote awareness among government agencies and local NGOs. The volunteers produced and distributed 300 copies of the manual and presented educational dramas to more than 250 elementary school students at six schools on similar topics.

The volunteers also led two reef check surveys for community members, providing them with a first-hand look at the health of their local reefs. The team also led half-day reef planting workshops for reef restoration. An inspection a month after the project was completed showed that the community has been maintaining the coral.

Reef Check Vanuatu Project

University of South Pacific: Solar-Powered “Fales” for Students

The University of the South Pacific (USP) launched a new solar photovoltaic (PV) system at its Laucala Campus in Suva on December 17, 2010. This renewable energy system, designed by the Head of USP’s School of Engineering and Physics, Dr. Atul Raturi, was funded by the U.S. Department of State’s Small Regional Environmental Grants program. The system uses sunlight to provide a sustainable source of electricity for recently built student study areas called “fales” (pronounced “far-lay”) – eco-friendly structures based on traditional Tongan design.

University of South Pacific Solar Photovoltaic Fales Project

Another aim of this project is to spread the knowledge of and build capacity for the use of renewableoff-grid power systems. The Pacific Islands, which currently must import expensive, polluting fossil fuels from outside the region, are increasingly affected by the adverse impacts of climate change. Since 80% of Pacific Islanders have no access to electricity, these types of renewable energy projects are vital to the region’s future.

In its one-year existence, USP’s solar-powered “fales” have increased awareness among studentsand staff about the potentials of renewable energy. They have produced more than one megawatt-hour of electricity savings for the university. (One megawatt can power 1,000 homes in the United States, at the average rate of electricity use, for a year.) The project also reduced USP’s carbon footprint by more than one ton of carbon dioxide. This new solar PV system has become a centerpiece of capacity building efforts at USP’s School of Engineering Physics, where students and technical staff learn about its design, operation, and maintenance.

The success of this renewable energy pilot has also attracted the attention of the EU and a Korean renewable energy research company.

University of South Pacific Solar Photovoltaic Fales Project

Wildlife Conservation Society Tiger Project Thailand

In August 2011, the U.S. Department of State’s Regional Environmental Office (REO) in Bangkok awarded a small grant of nearly $25,000 to the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) to improve wildlife protection in Thailand’s Western Forest Complex (WEFCOM). The WEFCOM is one the largest protected landscapes in mainland Southeast Asia, supporting various globally threatened species including tigers and elephants.

The core area of WEFCOM includes Huai Kha Khaeng and Thung Yai Wildlife Sanctuaries (HKK-TY), which the international tiger conservation community has categorized as a tiger conservation landscape of top priority. Over the past seven years, WCS has worked closely with several of the Thai government’s wildlife management agencies to strengthen law enforcement and monitoring, including supporting the deployment of advanced wildlife monitoring technologies.

This REO-funded small grant project has significantly improved the law enforcement system in HKK. Coverage for 20 patrol teams has increased to span almost the entire 2,700 square kilometers of the HKK. This intensified patrol effort led to a rise in arrests of tiger-poaching gangs that previously operated with impunity deep inside the HKK.

Wildlife Conservation Society Tiger Project Thailand

This small project also involved a public education campaign to stop the illegal sale of wild meat in local food shops and restaurants. Posters and notebooks were developed, posted, and distributed in local communities bordering the HKK. WCS also organized a big parade in Lan Sak district to raise awareness of this critical issue. The widely publicized parade caught the attention of local people including school children. Key figures participated in the parade, including the Vice Minister of Natural Resources and Environment, the Deputy Director General of Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation (DNP), the Mayor of Lansak District, and 24 representatives of twelve countries who had come to the HKK for a training course on wildlife conservation enforcement organized by the Smithsonian Institute.

This poster conveys the message: “Wild animals are for the food for tigers, not for humans.”

Wildlife Conservation Society Tiger Project Thailand

Mongolia Environment and Nature Consortium:
Exploring Potential Uses of Biogas in Mongolia

The Mongolia Environment and Nature Consortium (MENC) received a small grant for $24,900 from the U.S. Department of State’s Regional Environmental Office (REO) in Bangkok to conduct a project to identify the potential to produce and use methane-based biogas from livestock dung in Mongolia. Development of such technology could eliminate the need for rural communities to connect to a traditional electric grid. The results of this project will be widely distributed to support further development and diffusion of biogas technology in Mongolia.

Mongolia Biogas Project

To guide this project, the MENC established a biogas advisory group of distinguished scientists and stakeholders, responsible for selecting the pilot site and managing the project’s implementation. Dr. M. Badarch, Director of MENC and Prof. B. Namkhainyam, Technical University of Science and Technology, are the main project leads. Badarch and Namkhainyam jointly developed the technical concept of biogas development and application for Mongolia.

Mongolia Biogas Project

As a pilot site for this project, the MENC selected a small community called Ovor Gunt, located roughly 25 kilometers outside the capital city of Ulaanbaatar. Ovor Gunt is comprised of eight families, with 65 cows that will produce dung for conversion to biogas. The technical components of the biogas pilot plant were bought in China, transported to Mongolia, and installed at Ovor Gunt. One significant challenge initially encountered was adaptation to Mongolia’s extremely cold climate. The advisory group continues to test the technology and work with experts to improve the biogas technology currently in use at Ovor Gunt, while also designing new biogas extracting techniques and technology, possibly for use with sheep dung.

As a pilot site for this project, the MENC selected

One adaptation of this project to Mongolia’s harsh winters was the construction of a small “Greenhouse” that will protect dung/fuel and equipment from precipitation, and allow biogas conversion to continue during winter months. In order to promote the benefits of this type of low-cost, non-labor-intensive, and environmentally friendly biogas production in Mongolia, project personnel are drafting a Mongolian language user guide. The MENC also plans to hold a conference to publicize the existence of this biogas plant and to discuss potential legal issues and how to manage them. The expected result will be a legally binding agreement among farmers at the biogas pilot site, and a set of guidelines for future biogas plants. Several local smaller-scale group discussions on project implementation issues and technical concepts have already taken place, along with other small-scale public awareness efforts, including logo design and a branding campaign.